8.1 INTRODUCTION

8.2 RADIATION BUDGETS OF THE EARTH-ATMOSPHERE SYSTEM

8.2.1 Observational Considerations

8.2.1.1 Black and white sensors based on radiative equilibrium
8.2.1.2 Scanning radiometer and angular models

8.2.2 Radiation Budget Viewed from Space
8.2.3 Cloud Radiative Forcing Derived from ERB Data
8.2.4 Radiative Heating/Cooling Rates of the Atmosphere
8.2.5 Radiation Budget at the Surface

8.3 RADIATIVE AND CONVECTIVE ATMOSPHERES

8.3.1 Radiative Equilibrium

8.3.1.1 A global model
8.3.1.2 A vertical model

8.3.2 Radiative and Convective Equilibrium

8.3.2.1 Heat budget of the earth-atmosphere system
8.3.2.2 Convective adjustment

8.4 RADIATION IN ONE-DIMENSIONAL CLIMATE MODELS

8.4.1 Carbon Dioxide Greenhouse Effects
8.4.2 Ozone and Other Greenhouse Gases
8.4.3 Radiation Feedback Consideration
8.4.4 Aerosols and Radiation
8.4.5 Cloud Radiative Forcing

8.5 RADIATION IN ENERGY BALANCE CLIMATE MODELS

8.5.1 Energy Budget of the Atmosphere and the Surface

8.5.1.1 Atmosphere and oceans
8.5.1.2 Surface energy budget

8.5.2 Radiative Forcing in Energy Balance Climate Models

8.5.2.1 Linear heating approach
8.5.2.2 Diffusion approach

8.5.3 Solar Insolation Perturbation

8.6 RADIATION IN GLOBAL CLIMATE MODELS

8.6.1 An Introduction to General Circulation Modeling
8.6.2 Cloud Radiative Forcing in Global Climate Models
8.6.3 Direct Radiative Forcing: Aerosols and Contrails
8.6.4 Radiation in El Niño-Southern Oscillation

EXERCISES

SUGGESTED REFERENCES